Renaissance Art by Annelise Garrison

The Renaissance is the period of time from around 1400 – 1600 in Europe. It means “re-birth”. It started when people began to change the way they looked at the world around them. They found a new interest in the Ancient Greeks and Romans, and began to question the old ideas of the Middle Ages. The Renaissance lasted for over 200 years, and it is believed that it marks the beginning of the modern world. It started in Italy.

Painting Change

Artists began to paint more lifelike during the Renaissance. This is because people began to have an interest in human beings. This is called humanism, and this inspired a lot of artists. Perspectives, paints, and ways of painting changed dramatically.

How was Renaissance Art different from Medieval Art?

Medieval art was based on religious beliefs and Biblical characters and reference. Most Medieval art are painting of Jesus and the Virgin Mary. The Renaissance art was more about nature, and less focused on religion. Renaissance artists were more concerned about perspectives and proportions and showing details of their subject. Medieval art was very two dimensional, while Renaissance art was more focused on the 3D view.

Famous Renaissance Artists

–          Leonardo Da Vinci; for his Mona Lisa and The Last Supper oil paintings.

–          Michelangelo Buonarroti; for his enormous sculpture of David, the emotional Pieta, and for completing the frescoes in Sistine Chapel.

–          Donatello; for his sculpture of David in Florence.

–          Raphael; for his portrait of Julius II, for his “cartoons” that are on the tapestries in Sistine Chapel, and for his painting The School Of Anthens.

–          Masaccio; for his famous art in the Brancacci Chapel, and developing the style of 3-Dimensional art

–          Brunelleschi; for making the cupola of the Florence cathedral.

–          Bellini; for his painting Agony in the Garden.

Sources:  http://library.thinkquest.org/2838/artgal.htm and Timeline Junior Cert History Ed Co

May 26, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | Leave a comment

Leonardo da Vinci: The life and death of a great Renaissance master- By Arlena Carney

Leonardo Da Vinci: The Life and Death of a        Great Renaissance Master

Born: Saturday, 15 of April 1452

Died: 2 of May 1519 (aged 67)

Nationality: Italian

Profession: Inventor, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, mathematician,

                      engineer, anatomist, botanist, geologist, cartographer and writer.

When we think of great Renaissance masters, we think of the most unusual and intresting one, Leonardo Da Vinci. Born Leonardo Ser Piero Da Vinci, he was the

 illegitimate son of a prominent notary, Ser Piero di Antonio and a peasant woman called Catrina. He was born in Vinci, Florence and spent his childhood living with his father. Both his father and his mother later had children, and supplied him with a total of 17 half brothers and sisters. Da Vinci spent his younger days outside, sketching and observing nature. As a child he had access to scholary texts owned by his family and friends, and received an informal education in his home. He was exposed to Vinci’s painting tradition, and when he was 15, his father apprenticed him to Andrea del Verrocchio (a leading artist in Vinci) This man was a goldsmith, a painter and a sculptor. He bacame his apprentice learning painting and sculpting and was accepted into the painters guild in Florence in 1462. However, he deferred and continued working as an apprentice until 1477.

When he completed his apprenticeship, he continues working as an assistant in Verroccio’s workshop. From here his earliest known painting stems, a collaboration with Verroccio called Baptism of Christ, painted in 1475.

       Da Vinci was known as a Renaissance man for his many contributions to the rebirth, such as inventions, paintings, architecture, anatomical discoveries, painting techniques, and scientific discoveries.                   

 Da Vinci invented many great machines, and notebooks have been found depicting sketches of flying contraptions, military weapons, and other machines.

In his notebooks, he also speaks of his earliest memory being when a kite(a large feathered hawk) landed in his cradle and hit his face repeatedly with it’s tail feathers.

This was his explanation for his fascination with objects that enabled a person to fly. He never constructed the blueprints he sketched for a flying machine now known as a helicopter, but his sketches aided the construction of the future helicopter. Other sketches of flying contraptions also included a glider and a parachute. The glider was the first ever plane design capable of flight.

An excellent cartographer, he aided many wars with his creation of maps. His first map was of a stronghold in Imola. He had none of the modern technology that cartographers today use, preferring to walk the distance personally, in order to measure accurately.

                     His contribution  to military weapons included an automobile car (which was powered by a spring), a three tier machine gun, a scaling ladder, and a tank.

Da Vinci created a bronze horse, for a patron called Ludovico Sforza. 23 feet high and weighing nearly 80 tons, the giant sculpture of the Duke of Milan on horseback proved to much for even Leonardo. Sforza appointed Leonardo to create this statue as a tribute to his predecessor Francesco Sforza. By the time the French invaded Milan, Da Vinci’s had a 22 feet version made from clay, but he devised a way to make the statue from bronze. However, the original clay version was used as target practice for the marauding French army.

                Da Vinci’s paintings are some of the most well known in the world.

The most famous currently resides in the Musee de Lourve, an art museum in Paris, under the title of Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of Francesco del Gioconda, better known as the Mona Lisa . The simple, yet extraordinary painting has intrigued many patrons of the arts. It depicts a seated woman in front of  a background of a landscape. Da Vinci started the painting, then left it for four years. He then returned to it three years later and finished it shortly before he died. The model is Lisa del Gioconda. Her smile has been described mostly as enigmatic, and has been the centre of many discussions. Many wonder how her smile seems joyful and radiant one moment and serious the next, and numerous art historians and scientists have studied her portrait carefully, all attempting to find the secret of her mysterious smile.

 Another largely famous painting is The Last Supper. This mural covers the end wall of the dining room at the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The painting portrays the reaction of the apostles when Jesus tells them that one of them will betray him. It differs from other paintings of this event, as normally, Judas sits on the other side of the table alone; with his back to the viewer. In this image however, Judas sits in the midst of the apostles. He has knocked over a salt cellar, which may have referred to the Near-Eastern expression to ‘betray the salt’ meaning to betray ones master.  The painting is done on a dry wall instead of wet plaster, so it is not a true fresco. Because of the methods used to paint it, the picture began to deteriorate a couple of years after Da Vinci finished it, and has since had to be restored several times, one restoration taking over 21 years. One other painting is The Adoration of the Magi.

           Da Vinci’s interest in science is clearly proven in the ink and paper drawing, The Vitruvian Man, created in 1487. Also on the paper are notes based on the work of the famed architect Vitruvius. The drawing is of a male with his arms and legs apart and in two different positions, simultaneously inscribed in a square and a circle. It is based on the ideal human proportions with Geometry and is named in honour of the architect. The artwork is an example of the blending of art and science and of Da Vinci’s love of proportion. According to the accompanying text (which is written in mirror writing) it was a study of the proportions of the male human body as described by Vitruvius. An example of  the proportions are:

Ÿ  The length of a man’s outspread arms (arm span) is equal to his height.

Ÿ  The distance from the hairline to the bottom of the chin is one-tenth of a man’s height.

Ÿ  The maximum width of the shoulders is a quarter of a man’s height.

There is no such thing as a universal set of proportions for the human body, however. Vitruvius’ statements may be interpreted as statements about average proportions.

       After many successful drawings of muscles and tendons during his apprenticeship years , Da Vinci was given permission to dissect human corpses at the Hospital of Santa Maria Nova in Florence. He also dissected cows, birds, monkeys, horses, bears, and frogs, to compare their anatomy to his notes on human anatomy and skeletons. Da Vinci had over 200 pages of drawings and notes on human anatomy and the muscular-skeletal system. His drawings included muscles, tendons, sinews, the skeleton and the cardiovascular system.

     The Da Vinci code is a novel written in 2003, by Dan Brown. The novel follows symbologist  Robert Langdon and Sophie Neveu as they investigate a murder which leads them into the midst of a feud between the Priory of Sion and the Opus Dei over the possibility that  Jesus was married to Mary Magadalene. The beginning of the novel involves a frantic search around the Lourve, searching for invisible clues on Da Vinci paintings. It is also said that Da Vinci was the leader of a secret society who knew Mary Magdalenes secret and wanted to protect it. The Da Vinci Code is a fictional novel, but is based on facts from the book Holy Blood, Holy Grail published in 1982.

        The Mona Lisa is a large topic of speculation for many people. Theories have been devised, stating many extreme and strange observations. Some have proved to be correct, but others are quite literally just speculation.  One of the most recent ones was that if her eyes are magnified, tiny words and numbers can be seen. Others say she was pregnant, that she originally had eyebrows and eyelashes, that she is a female version of Da Vinci, or that the painting was cut down and made smaller.

The painting of the Last Supper’s wild theories shot into the stratosphere after the Da Vinci Code, as it was indicated that evidence for Jesus’ marriage to Mary Magdalene was presented in the painting. They speak of  the apostle depicted as being John is in fact Mary Magdalene, as ‘she’ has feminine clothing and hands. They also say that she was pregnant with Jesus’ child, and the space between the two in the painting is to represent the Holy Grail. They also focus on the hand with the dagger, saying that it is impossible for Peter to bend his hand in such a manner, especially as Da Vinci was so knowledgeable about anatomy. They claim the hand belongs to no one, that it was Da Vinci’s own secret. There is evidence to support some of these theories, but nothing is mentioned in Da Vinci’s notebooks so we won’t ever be really sure if any of this is true.

    Da Vinci was ambidextrous, and many say he was able to write and paint at the same time.

Ÿ  His notebooks are all in mirror writing, and can be seen in the Royal library at Windsor Castle, the Lourve, the Biblioteca  Nacional de Espana, the Victoria and Albert museum, the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan and the British Library in London. The Codex Leicester is the only major scientific work of Leonardo in private hands. It is owned by Bill Gates and is displayed once a year in various cities.

  Leonardo Da Vinci had a number of powerful patrons, including Medici, Ludovico Sforza, Cesare Borgia and King Francis I of France. He had, over the years, a large number of followers and pupils.

Death of the great Renaissance Master:

Leonardo Da Vinci died on the 2^nd of May 1519 in Clos Luce. Legend has it that he died in the King of Frances’ arms.  He was buried in the Chapel of Saint Humbert in Chateau d’Amnboise. He died peacefully, as one of the greatest and most talented humans in history.

May 26, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | Leave a comment

The life of Leonardo Da Vinci by Cian Mannion

Leonardo da vinci was born on Saturday April 15^th, 1452 at Vinci in the region of Florence. Ser Piero, was to become a successful notary. His mother was a peasant named Caterina. The first four years of Leonardos life were spent in a village near Vinci with his mother. After 1457, he lived with his father’s family, which soon moved to Florence. Leonardo showed promise early on, with an innate talent in art and music and excellent social skills. In 1467, at the age of 15, he became an apprentice to the Florentine painter and sculptor Andrea Del Verrocchio , the foremost artist of his day. Leonardo entered the San Luca guild of painters in Florence in 1472, indicating that he had attained a degree of professional independence, but he remained with Andrea del Verrocchio until as late as 1480. His first known work, which he painted as an assistant, is the angel kneeling on the left of Verrocchio’s picture The Baptism Of Christ.

Leonardo went to Milan c.1482 and remained at the court of Ludovico Sforza for 16 years. In this time he composed the greater part of his Trattato della pittura and the extensive notebooks that demonstrate the marvelous versatility and penetration of his genius. As court artist he also organized elaborate festivals. Severe plagues in 1484 and 1485 drew his attention to problems of town planning, an interest which was revived during his last years in France. Many drawings of plans and elevations for domed churches reflect a concern with architectural problems that must have been stimulated by contact with Bramante during these years. He worked c.1488 on a model for the tambour and dome of the cathedral at Milan. In 1490 he was employed with Francesco di Giorgio as consulting engineer on the restoration of the cathedral at Pavia and later on the cathedral at Piacenza.

execute the famous Madonna of the Rocks

Two versions of the painting exist—one in the Louvre (1483–c.1486), another in the National Gallery, London (1483–1508). Leonardo’s fresco of the Last Supper (Milan) was begun c.1495 and completed by 1498. This work is now badly damaged. Leonardo’s own experiments with the fresco medium account in part for its disintegration, which was already noticed by 1517. From 1485 to 1490, Leonardo produced a studies on loads of subjects, including nature, flying machines, geometry, mechanics, municipal construction, canals and architecture (designing everything from churches to fortresses). His studies from this period contain designs for advanced weapons, including a tank and other war vehicles, various combat devices, and submarines. Also during this period, Leonardo produced his first anatomical studies. His Milan workshop was a veritable hive of activity, buzzing with apprentices and students. Alas, Leonardo’s interests were so broad, and he was so often compelled by new subjects, that he usually failed to finish what he started. This lack of “stick-to-it-ness” resulted in his completing only about six works in these 17 years, including “The Last Supper” and “The Virgin on the Rocks,” and he left dozens of paintings and projects unfinished or unrealized. He spent most of his time studying science, either by going out into nature and observing things or by locking himself away in his workshop cutting up bodies or pondering universal truths. Between 1490 and 1495 he developed his habit of recording his studies in meticulously illustrated notebooks. His work covered four main themes: painting, architecture, the elements of mechanics, and human anatomy. These studies and sketches were collected into various codices and manuscripts, which are now hungrily collected by museums and individuals (Bill Gates recently plunked down $30 million for the Codex Leicester!). Back to Milan… after the invasion by the French and Ludovico Sforza’s fall from power in 1499, Leonardo was left to search for a new patron. Over the next 16 years, Leonardo worked and traveled throughout Italy for a number of employers, including the dastardly Cesare Borgia. He traveled for a year with Borgia’s army as a military engineer and even met Niccolo Machiavelli, author of “The Prince.” Leonardo also designed a bridge to span the “golden horn” in Constantinople during this period and received a commission, with the help of Machiavelli, to paint the “Battle of Anghiari.” About 1503, Leonardo reportedly began work on the “Mona Lisa. On July 9, 1504, he received notice of the death of his father, Ser Piero. Through the contrivances of his meddling half brothers and sisters, Leonardo was deprived of any inheritance. The death of a beloved uncle also resulted in a scuffle over inheritance, but this time Leonardo beat out his scheming siblings and wound up with use of the uncle’s land and money. From 1513 to 1516, he worked in Rome, maintaining a workshop and undertaking a variety of projects for the Pope. He continued his studies of human anatomy and physiology, but the Pope forbade him from dissecting cadavers, which truly cramped his style. Following the death of his patron Giuliano de’ Medici in March of 1516, he was offered the title of Premier Painter and Engineer and Architect of the King by Francis I in France. His last and perhaps most generous patron, Francis I provided Leonardo with a cushy job, including a stipend and manor house near the royal chateau at Amboise. Although suffering from a paralysis of the right hand, Leonardo was still able to draw and teach. He produced studies for the Virgin Mary from “The Virgin and Child with St. Anne”, studies of cats, horses, dragons, St. George, anatomical studies, studies on the nature of water, drawings of the Deluge, and of various machines. Leonardo died on May 2, 1519 in Cloux, France. Legend has it that King Francis was at his side when he died, cradling Leonardo’s head in his arms L.

May 20, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | Leave a comment

ROMAN SOLDIER

BY  JASON FITZPATRICK

Roman soldiers wore a helmet,woolen tunic,body armour,Belt showing position in army,Shield with a special design For each legion,javelin Dagger used in hand to hand Combat,short sword and Marching sandals

What was the life of a Roman Soldier like. The life of a Roman soldier was hard and disciplined. Roman soldiers were trained to march twenty miles a day, under a burden of eighty pounds. Roman Soldiers had the skills and abilities to swim rivers, to climb mountains, to penetrate forests, and to encounter every kind of danger. The soldiers of the Roman army provided the labour to build walls, forts and roads. In fact Roman Soldiers built over 250000 miles of roads, the majority of which were in Western Europe. Roman soldiers built numerous forts – the purpose of these constructions were to act as fortified bases. These forts were built as defences and as power bases. Wooden stockades were erected and surrounded by ditches wherever Roman soldiers campedand whenever Roman Forts were built. Manpower, organisation and prefabricated forts enabled the Romans to build Roman Forts quickly and efficiently. His pay was only one denarius daily. Marriage for Roman Soldiers was discouraged or forbidden.Weapons of the Roman SoldierRoman Soldiers and the LegionsAccording to the Roman constitution, every free-born citizen was a soldier and bound to serve, if necessary, in the armies of the state from the age of seventeen to forty-six. The army of Roman citizens was eventually replaced by a standing army made up of landless city dwellers and newly created citizens from outlying provinces. Roman Soldiers were courageous  and they weretrained under the severest discipline and directed by means of an organization which was divided, subdivided and officered almost as perfectly as our modern corps with divisions, brigades, regiments, companies and squads. However, the Roman Legions were different in that they contained troops of all arms,infantry,cavaland artillery used during siege warfare. The strictregime of the Roman Soldiers and their legions enabled them to march across over and subdue most of the known world. The Roman legion consisted of four thousand men, as in the early ages of the republic but increased to six thousand during the time of Emperor Augustus. Roman Soldiers served in legions were essentially divided into horse soldiers (calvary) and foot soldiers. A Roman Legion was divided into ten cohorts. Each cohort consisted of Roman soldiers who fell into the categories composed of Hastati who were raw troops, Principes who were trained troops,  Triarii who were veterans and Velites who were light troops or skirmishers. Organisation of a Roman Soldiers within a LegionThe Roman Legion consisted of 10 cohorts. The basic organisation of the Roman Soldiers within an Imperial legion was as follows

The Life of Roman Soldiers – Glory and HonorRoman military life was a mixture of excitement, toil, danger, and hardship. The rewards of the Roman soldiers were small he waspaid in glory. No profession brought so much honor as the military. A Roman Soldier was taught that his destiny was to die in battle: death was his duty and his glory. He enlisted in the army with little hope of revisiting his home; he crossed seas and deserts and forests with the idea of spending his life in the service of his country. However insignificant the legionary was as a man, he gained importance from the great body with which he was identified  his legion. The Roman soldier was both the ervant and the master of the State. He had an intense esprit de corps he was bound up in the glory of his legion. Both religion and honor bound him to his standards. The golden eagle which glittered in his front was the object of his fondest devotion.

May 20, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | Leave a comment

The History of Pompeii

The History of pompeii 🙂 By kelsey

Historical Background
The Ancient City of Pompeii

In the early afternoon hours of August 24, 79 A.D. the summit of Mount Vesuvius exploded without warning. A black river of ash and lapilli ran from the crater of the volcano down through the city of Pompeii leaving death and destruction in its wake. The magnificent ancient city of Pompeii was left buried under about 20 feet of earth and ash. Pompeii was originally only 500 meters from the sea, but after the eruption the distance to the sea increased to two kilometres

Ancient City of Pompeii
Entrance to Ruins and the Roads of Pompeii

The entrance to the ruins of Pompeii is through Porta Marina, so named because it faces the sea. The entrance is composed of two openings covered by a single vault. The small door was for pedestrians and the larger door was for animals and vehicles.

Porta Marina, Entrance to the Ruins at Pompeii

Most of the roads in the ancient city of Pompeii were quite narrow, generally about seven feet to fourteen feet wide, the widest street being more than 20 feet wide.

A Main Road Runs Through Pompeii

All of the city’s roads were paved using polygonal blocks made from the lava of Vesuvius, and most of Pompeii’s roads included pavements or sidewalks.

Charriots Wore Ruts into the Roads of Pompeii.
Note the size of the ruts in relation to the cigarette butts in the photo to the right.

Streets of Various Widths in Pompeii, with Sidewalks

Via Dell’Abbondanza

Via Dell’Abbondanza stretches 600 meters from the Forum to Porta di Sarno through the most commericial and prosperous quarter of Pompeii. The street gets its name from the fountain that is sculptured with the symbol of Plenty, an opulent woman carrying a horn of plenty.  THE FORUM BATHS                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 

The Forum Baths are the smallest, but the most elegant of the thermae. They were built shortly after the establishment of Sullla’s colony in 80 BC. An inscription credits the duovir Lucius Caesius and the aediles Caius Occius and Lucius Niraemius. Despite their small size, they contained everything necessary for the full bathing ritual: dressing rooms, hot, tepid and cold rooms, exercise field, and toilets. These baths were also divided into separate facilities for men and women. They were the only baths still functioning in Pompeii after the earthquake of AD 62.

The Central Baths are the most recent version of thermae in Pompeii. When the social-economic axis of Pompeii moved towards the intersection of the Via Stabiana and Via di Nola, a new bath complex was designed, and it replaced an entire block (insula) of the town. The baths were constructed after the earthquake of AD 62, but were never completed before the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79. It is notable that separate sections for men and women were not provided, nor did it have a frigidarium, but it did have a laconicum instead.

May 19, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | 1 Comment

The Life Of A Medieval Woman In The Middle Ages By Rachael Mc Greal

The Life Of A Medieval Woman In The Middle Ages

The daily life of a Noblewoman in the Middle ages followed a similar schedule to that of her lord. This might be her husband, father or brother. The daily life of a Noblewoman during the Middle ages centred around castles or Manors. Much of her time was spent on overseeing the running of the household.

The daily life of a Medieval Noblewoman can be

 described as follows:

The daily life of a Noblewoman started at dawn when Mass would be heard and prayers would be made .

A noblewoman would be served by her ladies in waiting. She would be assisted with her dress for the day. The first meal of the day for the noblewoman was breakfast. The daily life of a Noblewoman would include discussions on tournaments, betrothals, marriages, poetry and country love.

A Noblewoman would be expected to oversee the education of the upper class girls who had sent to their households.

A Noblewoman had to be able to take their husbands places at all times. The daily life of a noblewoman would change if her husband was absent. She would be expected to look after the fiances of their manor or estates including the collection of rents. Supervise the faming and settle all disputes.

Mid morning prayers and a meal.

In the afternoon the daily life of a noblewomen turned to housewifely duties including the supervision of meals and ensuring stores were sufficient.

Leisure time was spent on embroidery and dance practice.

Evening prayer, and then supper in the Hall of the Castle or Manor House.

After supper there might be some entertainment- music, dancing, jugglers, acrobats, jesters, etc.

Bed time prayers were just before they went to sleep.

Medieval Woman And Marriage

Marriages were carefully considered transactions in the Medieval Period.

Education was less important than securing a sound economic base for a secure relationship where children could be raised. A bad marriage could mean the dilution of the power and wealth of a family- if a women married below her status, the exchange of goods and land, common at the time, would be disadvantageous. In the worse case it could mean a life of poverty for the newly weds.

Family, friends and church would all take a role in deciding what marriage would bring most benefits to the families and the community.

Amongst the very poor, property was less of an issue and there was more freedom to chose on personal preference- although sometimes marriage and children might not have been affordable at all.

Marriage Age

There is a myth that, in the medieval period, many girls were married before they even reached their teenage years.

Amongst rich and powerful families, very young children could be promised in marriage as a way of cementing alliances. Sometimes, actual marriage ceremonies of children would take place but the couple would not live together until they were considered adults. The Church also allowed the betrothed the right to renounce these child marriages when they came of age.

Recent research suggests that marriage age for ordinary people was little different in the medieval period then it was a hundred years ago.

In Italy the average age for marriage was 17; in France 16 years old; and in England and Germany 18 years old.

By Rachael Mc Greal

May 19, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | Leave a comment

Renaissance By Shane Conway

The Renaissance, from Ri- “again” and Nascere “be born’ is a cultural movement that  roughly in the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic time, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe. The Renaissance began in Florence in italy in the 14th century.

ART

There was lot of famous artists during this period. One famous one was Donatello. His full name Donato Di Niccolo Di Betto Bardi . He has a lot of famous pictures and sculptures , one of these famous ones is David .This sculpture is on show at bargello muesum in florence.

The most popular piece of art today of the renaissance would be the Mona Lisa.   

The theory that has been advanced is that the devastation caused by the Black death in Florence, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy. Italy was  badly hit by the plague .It has also been argued that the Black Death Afected Europe really Bad. However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century.

The plague was carried by fleas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly due to lack of proper sanitation: the population of England, then about 4.2 million, lost 1.4 million people to the bubonic plague. Florence’s population was nearly halved in this disaster.

May 19, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | 1 Comment

George Washington by Peter Killeen

Peter Killeen  

 George Washington

George Washington was born in Westmoreland, Virginia on Feb 22 1732. He was the son of Augustine and Mary Ball Washington. He spent his early life on the family estate in Popes Creek. His father died in 1743 and he went to live with his half brother Laurence at Mount Vernon. Laurence was a substitute father for him helping launch  his career. An early ambition to go to sea was discouraged by his mother, instead he decided to do surveying. Laurence died in 1752 and George inherited the estate

British and Indian War

In April 1753, the rivalery between Britain and French erupted because of a battle of control over the Ohio valley. This created oppurtunities for Washington.In April 1754, on his way to establish a post at the Forks of the Ohio (the current site of Pittsburgh), Washington learned that the French had already erected a fort there. Warned that the French were advancing, he quickly threw up fortifications at Great Meadows, Pa., aptly naming the entrenchment Fort Necessity, and marched to intercept advancing French troops. In the resulting skirmish the French commander the Sieur de Jumonville was killed and most of his men were captured. Washington pulled his small force back into Fort Necessity where he was overwhelmed (July 3) by the French in an all-day battle fought in a drenching rain. Surrounded by enemy troops, with his food supply almost exhausted and his dampened ammunition useless, Washington capitulated. Under the terms of the surrender signed that day, he was permitted to march his troops back to Williamsburg. Disappointed by the defeat, he resigned his commission .The next year, he joined the volunteers and tried to rally   the Virginia troops. Washington was seriously ill at thispoint.  

AmericanRevolution    A British withdrawn from the city Washington took command of troops attack on Philadelphia, had surrounding British occupied Boston .He used his time to train the soldiers. Early in March 1776, using cannon brought down from Ticonderoga by Henry Knox, Washington occupied Dorchester Heights, effectively commanding the city and forcing the British to evacuate on March 17. He then moved to defend New York City against the combined land and sea forces of Sir William Howe. In New York he committed a military blunder by occupying an untenable position in Brooklyn, although he saved his army by skillfully retreating from Manhattan into Westchester County and through New Jersey into Pennsylvania.

 In the last months of 1776, desperately short of men and supplies, Washington almost despaired. He had lost New York City to the British; enlistment was almost up for a number of the troops, and others were deserting in droves; civilian morale was falling rapidly; and Congress, faced with the possibility of a British attack on Philidelphia. In 1780 the war shifted towards the south. Washington was responsible for the American soldiers overall. He gained an important victory in Yorktown on 19^th October 1781.He gained experience during the war, listening to advice from more experienced officers during the war. He had very good relations with Congress. After the war, Washington returned to Mount Vernon which became delapitated while he was gone.

Preferring to concentrate on restoring Mount Vernon, he added a greenhouse, a mill, an icehouse, and new land to the estate. He experimented with crop rotation, bred hunting dogs and horses, and developed part of the Potomac River navigation, undertook various commercial ventures, and traveled (1784) west to examine his land holdings near the Ohio River. His diary notes a steady stream of visitors, from all over the world; Mount Vernon, like its owner, had  become very famous.

Presidency

He took office on april 20th 1789. Washington acted carefully and deliberately, aware of the need to build an executive structure that could accommodate future presidents. Hoping to prevent sectionalism from dividing the new nation, he toured the New England states (1789) and the South (1791). Washington was re-elected president in 1792, and the following year the most divisive crisis arising out of the personal and political conflicts within his cabinet occurred–over the issue of American neutrality during the war between England and France..

Later Years

By March 1797, when Washington left office, the country’s financial system was up and running; the Indian threat east of the Mississippi had been mostly eliminated; and Jay’s Treaty and Pinckney’s Treaty (1795) with Spain had enlarged U.S. territory and removed serious diplomatic difficulties. He enjoyed his last years in happy retirement at Mount Vernon. In mid-December, Washington contracted what was probably laryngitis; his health worsened and died at his estate on Dec. 14, 1799.

May 19, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | Leave a comment

the celts by jason barrett

 Jason barrett history project the celts                                                                         

 Alps of central Europe, the Celts spread their culture across modern-day Germany and France and into the Balkans as far as Turkey. They arrived in Britain and Ireland around 500BC and within a few humdre of years, Ireland’s Bronze Age culture had all but disappeared, and Celtic culture was in place across the entire island

           Early   accounts
The earliest pseudo-historical information that we have about Iron Age Celtic Ireland is from Carthaginian, Roman and Greek writers, who probably got their information from sailors who had been to the British Isles. There are writings from the 4th century AD by the Roman Avienus which are thought to be based on accounts from an early Greek voyage in the 6th century BC. These describe Celts in France and in the North Sea, where the British Isles are. He calls Ireland Insula Sacra (Holy Island) and its inhabitants gens hiernorum, thought to be a Latinisation of the Greek word for Ireland, Ierne. This, in all likelihood, is a modification of the word Ériu, which may be an original Celtic word for Ireland and a root of the later Irish word Eire and eventually the English word Ireland. The Greek Pytheas refers to the British Isles as the Pretanic Islands, which is derived from Priteni – definitely a Celtic word. In 52BC, the Romans were referring to Ireland as Hibernia, possibly extracted again from the Greek Although very like the Celtic cultures of the rest of Europe, that of Ireland had been influenced in part be the preceding Bronze Age culture. So Ireland’s culture was not totally like that of mainland Europe. However, in many regards it was very similar. Much of what we know about specifically Irish culture has come down through the years in the form of Heroic Tales, such as the Ulster Cycle which tells of the exploits of Cú Chullain, the Hound of Ulster. Once thought to be historicaly unreliable, these Heroic Tales describe a way of life that fits well with what we now know about the Celts of mainland Europe. Thus it seems that, while the events described may have been embelished over the years, the underlying themes and props in the stories may be accurate descriptions of life in Iron Age Ireland.

It was, in many ways, a culture based around war. Ireland was divided into dozens – possibly hundreds – of petty kingdoms. Within the kingdoms, it was the blacksmiths, druids and poets who were held in high esteem: the blacksmiths for making the weapons of war, the druids for making prophesies and soothsaying, and the poets for putting the exploits of warriors to verse, to be sung around the cooking fires. The aristocracy in this culture was made up of the warriors, who sought fame and recognition by doing battle with their enemies. The young warrior would be initiated by mounting his chariot (a two wheeled wooden cart pulled by two horses), before proceeding to battle and cutting off the heads of his enemies to bring them home as trophies .At the celebratory banquet afterwards, the warriors would compete for the “hero’s portion” of the food being served

The law that the Celts of Ireland used has been called Brehon law. Forms of Brehon Law were used in Ireland for hundreds of years. A full treatment of Brehon Law is beyond the scope of this article, but the idea was that a person’s identity was defined by the kingdom in which they lived. A peasant had no legal status outside the tuath, with the exception of men of art and learning. Those who were tied to their tuath were unfree and worked for the king. All land was owned by families, not by individuals. Wealth was measured in cattle, and each individual had a status measured in terms of wealth. Almost any crime committed against an individual could be recompensed by paying a fine equal to the status of the individual. For example, a 50 cows for an important person, 3 cows for a peasant. There was no death penalty; but, an individual could be ostracised from the tuath in certain circumstances.

language
The language spoken by the Celts in Ireland was Celtic, a variant of the Celtic languages which were used across Europe. In the British Isles, there were at least two dialects in use: Brittonic (P-Celtic) which was spoken in southern Britain and France, and Goidelic (Q-Celtic) which was spoken in Ireland and northern Britain. Brittonic is the root of modern Welsh, Cornish and Breton. Goidelic is the root of modern Irish and Scots-Gaelic. Brittonic and Goidelic must have been heavily influenced by the Bronze Age languages of Ireland.

The first written Irish appeared in the fifth century, around the same time as the initial Christianisation of Ireland. Called Ogham script, it consists of a series of grooves on the corner of a stone. Each combination of grooves represents a different letter of the Latin alphabet, and a number of Ogham stones have been found in Ireland and in Wales. Those in Ireland are mostly along the south coast. Usually they give the name of a person or ancestor and were probably .

 Celtic weapons  A number of areas of Scotland became centres for production of swords in the late Bronze Age. Longer slashing swords became popular among cultures such as the Celts. They could be used on foot or from horseback, and were prestigious weapons. Examples of this type of sword can be found throughout areas of early Celtic settlement.

The sword is constructed from cast bronze with a hammered edge providing a sharp and hardened cutting blade. The leaf shaped blade incorporates a handle plate with rivet holes. Bronze rivets are used to attach a shaped handle of wood or bone. The shape of the blade provides a sharp point for piercing thrusts and a sharp edge for slicing at opponents.

The Celtic and German tribes of the 5th century BC – 2nd century AD appear to have used very similar shields in battle. These shields were made in a variety of shapes in sizes. Archaeological (actual finds) and representational (art such as sculpture) evidence suggests that warriors on foot favored a tall shield, which offered great protection to the body. Cavalry used this tall shield or a smaller round shield. The tall body-shield was roughly a meter long (4-5 ft.). When resting on the ground it would have come up to just above the warrior’s waist. The shield’s shape could be any of a number of variations of an oblong form (see image below). The shield board was comprised of solid wood or vertical planks, covered in hide. The hide protected the wood from warping in the rain, and it prevented splintering when struck in battle. Round shields were often used by cavalrymen. Attached to the center of the shield face was the boss. This hollow object provided room for the user to hold the horizontal metal or wooden hand-grip. The boss protected the hand and could be used offensively to punch the enemy. A wooden boss was often covered on the front by an iron plate. A typically all-metal boss was made of iron. It appeared as a hemisphere with circular flange or as an oblong shape with butterfly wing-shaped flange.    

                       by jason barrett                                                                        

May 19, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | 3 Comments

The Renaissance by Tara O’Brien :D

The Renaissance 🙂

The word ‘Renaissance’ means ‘rebirth’ or ‘revival’. This name is given to the period because there was a revival of ancient Greek and Roman interests.

The Renaissance marks the period of European history at the close of the Middle Ages and the rise of the Modern world. It represents a cultural rebirth from the 14th through the middle of the 17th centuries. It is generally known that Renaissance matured in Northern Europe later, in 16th century. Giotto di Bondone is credited with first treating a painting as a window into space, but it was not until the demonstrations of architect Filippo Brunelleschi and the subsequent writings of Leon Battista Alberti that perspective was formalized as an artistic technique. The development of perspective was part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts. To that end, painters also developed other techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the case of Leonardo da Vinci, human anatomy.

The Renaissance patrons wanted art that showed joy in human beauty and life’s pleasures. Renaissance art is more lifelike than in the art of the Middle Ages. Renaissance artists studied perspective, or the differences in the way things look when they are close to something or far away. The artists painted in a way that showed these differences. As a result, their paintings seem to have depth.

An artist from Florence named Giotto was one of the first to paint in this new style. Giotto lived more than a century before the beginning of the Renaissance, but his paintings show real emotion. The bodies look solid, and the background of his paintings shows perspective. The art produced during the Renaissance would build upon Giotto’s style.

Leonardo da Vinci was born in 1452 in the village of Vinci. His name means Leonardo of Vinci. Leonardo began his career working for a master painter in Florence. By 1478, Leonardo left his master and set up his own workshop. People have been trying to guess the secret behind the smile of his Mona Lisa ever since he painted it around 1505. His Last Supper shows clearly the different feelings of Jesus and his followers.

The Mona Lisa.

Leonardo’s fame grew—but not just for his painting. Leonardo was truly a “Renaissance Man,” skilled in many fields. He was a scientist and an inventor as well as an artist. He made notes and drawings of everything he saw. Leonardo invented clever machines, and even designed imitation wings that he hoped would let a person fly like a bird.

Michelangelo Buonarroti of Florence was one of the greatest artists of all time. Like Leonardo, Michelangelowas a “Renaissance Man” of many talents. He was a sculptor, a painter, and an architect. When Michelangelo carved a statue of Moses, he included veins and muscles in the arms and legs.

Michelangelo was a devout Christian, and the church was his greatest patron. He designed the dome of St. Peter’s church in Rome. Nearby, Michelangelo’s paintings cover the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the building where new popes have been selected for more than five hundred years. Michelangelo’s painting illustrates the Book of Genesis, with scenes that span from the Creation to the Flood. The project was very difficult. Working alone, Michelangelo had to lie on his back atop high scaffolding while he painted the vast ceiling.

May 13, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | 3 Comments

The Industrial Revolution

                                                                                                    By Sinead Foy 🙂        

The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout Europe, North   America, and eventually the world.

why was Britain first

Why was Britain the first country to industrialize? This change, which occurred between 1750 and 1830, happened because conditions were perfect in Britain for the Industrial Revolution. Having used wood for heat instead of coal, Britain was left with large deposits of coal remaining to fuel the new ideas. Any raw supplies Britain itself did not have could be provided by its many colonies. These colonies also provided captive markets for the abundance of new goods provided by the industrial revolution (Gernhard). The product was cotton. Cotton was a simple, cheap, and easily made product that everyone could use. So, between 1796 and 1830 cotton production tripled (Haberman 48). The new production was easily transported, because there remained an old commercial fleet (Gernhard).

Inventions   

 Steam engine

Although the very first steam engine was developed over fifty years before the industrial revolution, inmprovements and revisions of this invention had a massive impact on the Industrial Revolution.

The first steam engine was developed by Thomas Savery, of Great Britain, in 1698. This steam engine only pumped water, and was not very practical. This idea was improved upon in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen. His created utilized a cylinder and a piston to, like Thomas Savery’s invention, pump water. This was used in coal mines. James Watt, from Scotland, improved on these designs to lay the groundwork for modern steam engines. His design incorpated gears and even a crankshaft.

Spinning Jenny

The spinning jenny was invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves. The spinning jenny allowed workers to spin more than one length of wool at once. This increased the effiency of creating yarn many times over. This invention was essential in the industrialization of the textile industry.

  Factory life

The Industrial Revolution radically changed the organization of work. In the new factories, a large number of workers gathered together six or seven days a week to engage in tightly coordinated tasks paced by machinery. This new organization of work implied a sharp dinstinction between work and home. In earlier types of work, such as farming, trades, and cottage industries, work and home were not necessarily separate spheres and child labor was not a public issue.

Factory work greatly affected the life experiences of children, men, and women. For children, factory work served as a form of hard schooling. It channeled into adult factory jobs child workers who obeyed orders, worked diligently, and survived the health hazards and tedium. While the Industrial Revolution eventually put great pressure on men to engage in paid work outside the home continuously from adulthood to retirement, some men, particularly older men, refused to work in the factories and preferred to engage in spot labor and work around the home. Some women made large contributions to their families through paid labor in the factories. It was not unusual for married women with children to work full-time in early English factors. As a substitute for family members engaging in non-paid home labor, some families made arrangements for paid child care, as well as paid laundry services and cleaning and cooking services.

Outside of the factories, adult women had poor labor market opportunities, and within the factories, adult women earned much less than adult men. These differences may have been economically related. They provided an incentive for men to engage in paid labor outside the home, and women to do non-paid labor within the home.

Where did people live?

Rich people

Cliffe Castle, Keighley, is a good example of how the newly rich chose to live. This is a large home modelled loosely on a castle, woth turrets, towers and imitation crennaltions on the walls of the garden. The home is very large and was surrounded by a massive garden, the estate itself stretching for a number of miles. Cliffe Castle is now open to the public as a museum. Admission is Free. click here to find out how to get there.

Poor people

Of course not everybody lived in homes like these. The Industrial Revolution led to there being a larger middle class of professionals such as lawyers and doctors. The conditions for the poor improved over the course of the 19th century due to a number of government and local initiatives which led to cities becoming cleaner places. You must also bear in mind that life hadn’t been exactly brilliant for the poor before industrialisation either.

Women and Children

Life for Women and Children during the Industrial Revolution was quite different to the way they can live today. This page looks at some of the things that women and children were expected to do during the industrial revolution and provides source material to show what people thought of this at the time. 

At the start of the industrial Revolution there was no legislation about working conditions in mills, factories or othe industrial plants. They simply had not been needed before. As factories spread rapidly the owners of mills, mines and other forms of industry needed large numbers of workers and they didn’t want to have to pay them a high wage. Children were the ideal employees therefore! They were cheap, weren’t big nough or educated enoguh to argue or complain and were small enough to fit between tight fitting machinery that adults couldn’t get between. Children soon ended up working in all types of industry.

You may wonder why these children were not at school, this is simply because education in the early 19th century was not compulsory and in the majority of cases schools were expensive to send a child to, so working class families couldn’t afford to send children there. Parents were quite willing to let children work in mills and factories as it provided the family with a higher income: one consequence of this was a high birth rate.

Diseases

Disease was a constant threat during the Industrial Revolution. Changes in the way that people lived and the conditions in which they worked led to disease being able to spread much more rapidly, and new forms of disease emerged that were as deadly as any killer that had been before.

Towns grew very quickly as factories led to migrations from the countryside and immigration from different parts of Europe and the empire. As the demand for housing increased so rapidly the quality of homes constructed was low. Housing for the worker was cramped in, built quickly and built with little regard for hygeine. In many cities the result was that large slums appeared.

These slums were areas where houses were small, roads narrow and services such as rubbish collection, sewage works and basic washing facilities non existant. In this type of climate bacterias grow quickly, the water supply is likely to become infected and weaker people are likely to fall ill much more rapidly.

Water was often the problem. Factories would dump waste into streams and rivers. The same streams and rivers were used to supply homes with water for washing and cooking. Soon peoples health was endangered. In many slums the same water supply was infected with human sewage as toilet facilities were often inadequate and sometimes consisted of a toilet blcok that was emptied irregularly: meaning that when it rained, the waste may overflow into the gutter and therefore into the rivers and streams.

The result of this is the spread of disease.

One of the main killers of the industrial age was Cholera. This deadly diease was water borne and spread through filthy cities with ease, killing thousands. Typhoid also took a hold in some areas and aain made great use of the poor sewage provisions to take a hold of many areas.

Diseases such as Cholera and Typhoid are now fairly easily prevented. Basic cleanliness, underground sewage pipes and regularly cleaned and controlled water supplies doing most of the work to prevent any re-occurence of this form of disease.

In an age where the ordinary man had no political say however, and no money or even education to support a claim for improved conditions, the issue was often overlooked. These diseases rarely ouhed the wealthy, there was always another worker available to replce those who died, so why should they concern themselves with issues such as the health of the poor? Thankfully some of the great industrialists of the time did see a worth in tackling the problem and there were a number of reports and recommendations made into preventing disease and impoving hygeine. The most notable including the works of Rowntree and Booth. The Industrial age also saw the advent of new forms of science and medical advances, these too aided the fight against killers such as Cholera and Typhoid.

Working hours and Pay

People worked from 5.30am to 8.00pm, six days a week (Sunday off). They had no holidays. Wages were very low as there was so many people looking for work.

Water Polution

 Few Brittish town or cities had water or sewage systems that could deal with the huge population increase. It was common for waste  to be dumped near people’s homes. The waste went from the sewers directly into nearby rivers, the town’s drinking water. This poluted water that was drank by the people. This led to the spread of diseases, such as typhoid, cholera and smallpox.

May 13, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | Leave a comment

George Washington by Luighseach Fletcher

George was born in Virginia on the 22^nd of February 1732. He was home schooled by his father and older brother. He had 6 siblings but all of them died before they reached adulthood. He then became a wealthy landownerfor the British against France in the in the Seven Year War.

When he returned to Virginia he married a wealthy widow named Martha Dandrige. When he married her he became one of the richest people in Virginia but Washington didn’t marry her for money.

Washington became the representative at the first and second Continental Congress Meeting for Virginia. Washington also became head of the American Congress Army. He had to train and collect farmers and other town workers to become soldiers.

At the War of Independence the Americans won back Boston which was Washington’s first victory but soon after that, they lost New York to the British at the White Plains in 1776.

The winter of 1777 and 1778 was a very bad one. Over two- thousand American Soldiers died of the coldness and disease. A German soldier was hired to train the soldiers for the cold weather. Germans were used to this kind of weather. As a sign of respect, Washington stayed with his soldiers and the soldiers respected him for that. They fought even harder for America and for George Washington because of this.

At the end of the war the Americans and French trapped the British in Yorktown and got all their land back. Outside Paris in 1783 the Americans signed a peace treaty which was a recognition of independence.

In 1798 when Washington returned to Virginia he was asked to become the king but he thought the country needed a different kind of government, so they then decided to make him the president of the newly formed United States of America. He re- elected in 1793 and then resigned in 1797.

He decided to build the White House but was the only American President not to live in it.

When he became President he moved to the District of Columbia, which is now known as Washington D.C. He Earned $25,000 a year which was a huge amount of money during this time.

In 1799 he became ill with a sore throat. The doctors in those days did not know how to treat an illness, and some think their treatment caused his death. George Washington then died later that year in 1799.

Luighseach Fletcher.

May 13, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | 9 Comments

The Celtic Year by Katie Sweeney

May 13, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | 1 Comment

Life As A Roman Soilder By Matt Gilligan

History Project

Life as a roman soldier

Men from farms all over the country went to fight as a soldier part time and when they got older they stayed full time. A roman army was well organised. Each main section of the army was called a legend. Life was very hard as a soldier. The men were disciplined by flogging. The general could even have a soldier beheaded for not following orders. Deserters got their right hand cut off. At times soldiers were paid, but often they were given no money except for their share of the booty. At times months would go by without any booty to share. Soldiers had to
carry a huge amount of gear. Marching with so much gear was hard for the men.
WEAPONS
Catapult was fired by winding down a huge beam, which had a sling at one end. A man called a loader lifted a large round stone and fit it into the sling. Stones weighing as much as 66 pounds were flung into the air. They landed up to 100 feet

away and could easily make holes in the walls of the enemy’s
UNIFORM

The Roman soldier dressed in a helmet, mail breastplate, leg and arm guards, belt, tunic, and boots.
The Roman helmet was made of iron, bronze, or brass. The helmet was bowl-shaped with a neck guard. The inside was lined with leather to protect the soldier’s head. The helmet also had cheek guards to protect the face. Many helmets had fittings for crests.
The mail breastplate of the Roman soldier was made from iron. The shoulders were reinforced. Rings ran horizontally around the body. These rings were wired together then sewed to a fabric or leather backing.

Leg and arm guards were used. These mainly consisted of iron plates sewn to leather. The metal leg protectors were called greaves.
The soldier’s tunic was probably red and white although historians are unsure of this point. It was made from linen or wool. The tunic was worn above the knee. Only soldiers and slaves were allowed to show their knees. Around the waist the soldier wore a belt. The belt’s main purpose was for holding the daggers and swords. Sometimes two belts were worn, one for the sword and one for the dagger.
The boot looked more like a sandal. The upper portion consisted of one piece of leather cut into many narrow strips. The top was attached to a sole. The sole contained a nail design. The boot was laced up the front.
Soldiers – Promotion
A Decanus (Decanii) was the first rank that a legionary could be promoted to, similar to a modern sergeant. A decanus was responsible for between 8-10 who shared the same tent. He was responsible for training and discipline of the men in his tent together with issuing instructions regarding erecting stockades and fortifications. Another level of promotion for a particularly loyal Roman soldier was that of a Discentes signiferorum a trainee standard bearer who would look to become an Aquilifer who carried the legionary eagle. An important position in a century was that of the Signifier who carried the Century’s standard (signum) into battle (wearing bear’s hide over his helmet) and was also the treasurer for the Century. All standard bearers wore animal skins over their uniforms and helmets.
The Life of Roman Soldiers – The Rewards
Roman Soldiers were given various decorations for loyal and valiant deeds in battle. These decorations were worn with great pride when marching in parades of triumphs. The most common rewards to rank and file Roman soldiers were the following:
 Armillae: Armillae were minor decorations worn as an armband
 Torques: Torques were decorations worn around the neck
 Phalerae: Phalerae were an embossed disc which was worn on the uniform
Other rewards to Roman soldiers were crowns of different forms:
 The mural crown was presented to the soldier who in the assault first scaled the rampart of a town
 The castral, to soldiers who were foremost in storming the enemy’s entrenchments
 The civic chaplet of oak leaves, to the soldier who saved his comrade’s life in battle
 The triumphal laurel wreath to the general who commanded in a successful engagement
When an army was freed from a blockade, the soldiers gave their deliverer a crown called obsidionalis, made of the grass which grew in the besieged place; and to him who first boarded the ship of an enemy, a naval crown. But the greatest distinction that could be conferred on a commander, was a triumph; this was granted only by the senate, on the occasion of a great victory. When decreed, the general returned to Rome, and was appointed by a special edict to the supreme command in the city; on the day of his entry, a triumphal arch was erected of sculptured masonry, under which the procession passed. By Matthew Gilligan

May 13, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | Leave a comment

Roman Army By Matthew Durkan

Roman Soldier

By Matthew Durkan.

The Roman army is the generic term for the terrestrial armed forces deployed by the kingdom of Rome (to ca. 500 BC), the Roman Republic (500-31 BC), the Roman Empire (31 BC – AD 476) and its successor, the Byzantine empire (476-1453). It is thus a term that spans approximately 2,000 years, during which the Roman armed forces underwent numerous permutations in composition, organization, equipment and tactics, while conserving a core of lasting traditions.·Who was in the Roman army?

Only men could be in the Roman Army. No women. Every Roman soldier was a Roman citizen. He had to be at least 20 years old. He was not supposed to get married while he was a soldier. Most soldiers in the Roman Empire came from countries outside Italy. There were Roman soldiers from Africa, Gaul, Germany, the Balkans, Spain and the Middle East.

Soldiers had to stay in the army for at least 25 years! Then they could retire, with a pension or a gift of land to farm. Old soldiers often settled down to old age together, in a military town or colonia.

· What was a legion?

There were about 30 legions in the Roman Army. Each legion had between 4000 and 6000 soldiers, called legionaries. Each legion had ten cohorts. Each cohort was made up of six troops of about 80 legionaries, called centuries. Each century was led by a centurion. A centurion carried a stick, to show his importance. He could also use his stick to beat any soldier who disobeyed an order. The officer commanding the whole legion was called a legate.

· What other soldiers did the Romans have?

Legionaries were the best Roman soldiers, and the best paid. There were other soldiers though. An auxiliary was a soldier who was not a Roman citizen. He was paid a third as much as a legionary. Auxiliaries guarded forts and frontiers, but also fought in battles, often in the front lines (most dangerous).

Some soldiers had special skills. They shot bows and arrows, flung stones from slingshots, or could swim rivers to surprise an enemy – like commandos today.

Artillery soldiers fired giant catapults (in Latin an onager), machines that fired rocks or balls of burning tar. The Romans used big wind-up crossbows (in Latin a ballista), too.

Usually, Romans liked to fight on foot. They used cavalry, soldiers on horses, to chase a fleeing enemy. In a battle, the cavalry often lined up either side of the foot-soldiers, or infantry.

· What armour and weapons did the Romans have?

We know about Roman armour and weapons from Roman pictures and statues, and from finds by modern archaeologists.

A Roman soldier wore armour made from strips of iron and leather (lorica segmentata in Latin). On his head was a metal helmet (galea). He carried a rectangular shield, curved so it protected his body (scutum). The shield was made of wood and leather.

The soldier’s main weapons were a short sword for stabbing (gladius) and a long spear called a javelin for throwing (pilum). The javelin had a sharp iron point, and a thin, bendy shaft. When it hit an enemy’s shield, the point stuck in, but the shaft bent. This made it difficult to pull out. The long spear shaft got in the way, so the enemy had to throw away his shield.

· How well-trained were Roman soldiers?

Roman soldiers kept fit by running, marching and practice-fighting. They could march 20 miles/30 km a day wearing armour. They could swim or cross rivers in boats, build bridges, and smash their way into forts. Each man carried his weapons and shield, some food and camping equipment (such as spare clothes, cooking pot and an axe or spade).

Roman soldiers almost always obeyed orders. They usually fought in lines, marching forward with their shields facing the enemy. If they were being fired at from above (with arrows or rocks) the men would lift their shields over their heads for protection. They looked like a tortoise, so they called this formation the testudo (Latin for tortoise).

May 13, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | Leave a comment

Roman army by Eoin O’Neill

Eoin o neill history projectEoin o neill history project

Eoin o’neill  History

The life of a Roman soildier

Who was in the Roman army?

Only men were able to be in the Roman Army. Every Roman soldier had to be Roman citizen to be in the roman army. soilders had to be at least 20 years old to join the army. They were not supposed to get married while they were soldiers. Most soldiers in the Roman Empire came from countries outside Italy. There were Roman soldiers from Africa, Gaul, Germany, the Balkans, Spain and the Middle East.

Soldiers had to stay in the army for at least 25 years! Then they could retire, with a pension or a gift of land to farm.Old soldier soften settled down to old age together

                                                What armour and weapons did the Romans have?

We know about Roman armour and weapons from Roman pictures and statues, and from finds by modern archaeologists.

A Roman soldier wore armour made from strips of iron and leather (lorica segmentata in Latin). On his head was a metal helmet (galea). He carried a rectangular shield, curved so it protected his body (scutum). The shield was made of wood and leather.

The soldier’s main weapons were a short sword for stabbing (gladius) and a long spear called a javelin for throwing (pilum). The javelin had a sharp iron point, and a thin, bendy shaft. When it hit an enemy’s shield, the point stuck in, but the shaft bent. This made it difficult to pull out. The long spear shaft got in the way, so the enemy had to throw away his shield.

Impreial roman army

Under the founder–emperor Agustus(ruled 30 BC – 14 AD), theleigons, ca. 5,000-strong all- heavy infantry formations recruited from only, were transformed from a mixed conscript and volunteer corps serving an average of 10 years, to all-volunteer units of long-term professionals serving a standard 25-year term (conscription was only decreed in emergencies). In the later 1st century, the size of a legion’s First Cohort was doubled, increasing legionary personnel to ca. Alongside the legions, Augustus establish                         ed the auxilia, a regular corps of similar numbers to the legions, recruited from the perigrini(non-citizen inhabitants of the empire – about 90% of the empire’s population in the 1st century). As well as comprising large numbers of extra heavy infantry equipped in a similar manner to legionaries, the auxilia provided virtually all the army’s cavalry (heavy and light), light infantry, archers and other specialists. The auxilia were organised in ca. 500-strong units called cohortes (all-infantry), alae (all-cavalry) and cohortes equitatae (infantry with a cavalry contingent attached). Around AD 80, a minority of auxiliary regiments were doubled in size. Until about 68 AD, the auxilia were recruited by a mix of conscription and voluntary enlistment. After that time, the auxilia became largely a volunteer corps, with conscription resorted to only in emergencies. Auxiliaries were required to serve a minimum of 25 years, although many served for longer periods. On completion of their minimum term, auxiliaries were awarded Roman citizenship, which carried important legal, fiscal and social advantages. Alongside the regular forces, the army of the Principate employed allied native units (called numeri) from outside the empire on a mercenary basis. These were led by their own aristocrats and equipped in traditional fashion. Numbers fluctuated according to circumstances and are largely unknown.

As all-citizen formations, and symbolic garantors of the dominance of the Italian “master-nation”, legions enjoyed greater social prestige than the auxilia. This was reflected in better pay and benefits. In addition, legionaries were equipped with more expensive and protective armour than auxiliaries, notably the lorica segmentaor laminated-strip armour. However, in 212, the emperor caracellagranted Roman citizenship to all the empire’s inhabitants. At this point, the distinction between legions and auxilia became moot, the latter becoming all-citizen units also. The change was reflected in the disappearance, during the 3rd century, of legionaries’ special equipment, and the progressive break-up of legions into cohort-sized units like the auxilia.

May 13, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | Leave a comment

Martin Luther By Dan Timlin

Dan Timlin

History Project

Martian Luther

Martian Luther was a man who made the famous printing press. He also turned the bible from being written in latin , to being written in German (the language of the people).

He wrote the famous ’95 Theses’ and nailed it to the door of the cathedral in Germany.

He himself spoke Latin but he thought the masses should be said in German (and other languages).

He thought the sale of ‘Indulgences’ Were wrong and that it said in the Bible that you did not have to be good to get into heaven, all you have to do is be a Christian.

He thought that Indulgences do not save you from going to a place in between heaven,hell and earth.This place was called Purgatory.

Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and Magdeburgg did not reply to Luther’s letter containing the 95 Theses. He had the theses checked for heresy and in December 1517 forwarded them to Rome He needed the revenue from the indulgences to pay off a papal dispensation for his tenure of more than one bishopric. As Luther later noted, “the pope had a finger in the pie as well, because one half was to go to the building of St Peter’s Church in Rome”.

Pope Leo X was used to reformers and heretics, and he responded slowly, “with great care as is proper.Over the next three years he deployed a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther, which only served to harden the reformer’s anti-papal theology. First, the Dominican theologian  Mazzoli drafted a heresy case against Luther, whom Leo then summoned to Rome. The Elector Frederick persuaded the pope to have Luther examined at Augsburg, where the Imperial Diet was held. There, in October 1518, Luther informed the papal legate Cardinal Cajetan that he did not consider the papacy part of the biblical Church, and the hearings degenerated into a shouting match. More than his writing the 95 Theses, Luther’s confrontation of the church cast him as an enemy of the pope. Cajetan’s original instructions had been to arrest Luther if he failed to recant, but he lacked the means in Augsburg, where the Elector guaranteed Luther’s security. Luther slipped out of the city at night, without leave from Cajetan.

In January 1519, at Altenburg in Saxony, the papal nuncio Karl von Miltitz adopted a more conciliatory approach. Luther made certain concessions to the Saxon, who was a relative of the Elector, and promised to remain silent if his opponents did. The theologian, Johann Maier von eck however, was determined to expose Luther’s doctrine in a public forum. In June and July 1519 he staged a disputation with Luther’s colleague Andreas Karlstadt at Leipzig and invited Luther to speak. Luther’s boldest assertion in the debate was that Matthew 16:18 does not confer on popes the exclusive right to interpret scripture, and that therefore neither popes nor church councils were infallible. For this, Eck branded Luther a new Jan Hus, referring to the Czech reformer and heretic burned at the stake in 1415. From that moment, he devoted himself to Luther’s defeat.

May 13, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | Leave a comment

Hello world!

Welcome to WordPress.com. After you read this, you should delete and write your own post, with a new title above. Or hit Add New on the left (of the admin dashboard) to start a fresh post.

Here are some suggestions for your first post.

1. You can find new ideas for what to blog about by reading the Daily Post.
2. Add PressThis to your browser. It creates a new blog post for you about any interesting  page you read on the web.
3. Make some changes to this page, and then hit preview on the right. You can alway preview any post or edit you before you share it to the world.

May 13, 2011 | Categories: Uncategorized | 1 Comment